Masculinities and third gender

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This book explores a unique phenomenon in the ancient Near East: individuals born male whose masculine identities were rendered ambiguous due to various social and historical factors, classifying them as a third gender. These individuals held specific titles and participated in cult or palace administration. Documentation often portrays them as exhibiting traits that diverged from traditional masculine expectations in Mesopotamia. The terminology used to describe them appears in numerous lexical lists, providing a framework for this research. Notable titles include gala/kalû, assinnu, kurgarrû, and lú-sag / ša rēši, alongside less common ones like kulu’u and girseqû. Their sexual and gender ambiguity manifested in various ways, including castration, cross-dressing, and behaviors typically associated with femininity, such as dancing or lamenting. A lack of procreativity further contributed to their gender ambiguity, challenging a key aspect of ancient Near Eastern masculinity. While effeminacy was not always a defining trait, deviation from conventional masculine norms was sufficient for classification within this third gender. The concepts of social “otherness” are crucial for establishing social boundaries that define normative behavior. This research highlights that the third gender phenomenon was primarily rooted in social definitions, illustrating how identity is shaped by limitations and societal norms. These figures were