The Andes

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Extending over about 7,500 km, the Andes form the Pacific boundary of South America, representing the continent's backbone. They are part of the circumpacific mountain system, characterized by more igneous rocks than many Tethyan geosynclines. The tectonic structure features significant normal faulting, with fewer overthrusts or folding deformations in the overlying rock. Most deep-focus earthquakes and volcanic activity are associated with this region, where prominent deep-sea trends run parallel to the continents and island arcs encircling the Pacific. The Andean orogen is marked by distinct geological aspects; its morphology suggests contemporaneous orogenic events, but the mountain range has developed since the Precambrian through temporally and spatially superimposed crustal sections. There is no uniform Andean geosyncline; instead, several separate sections were welded together during different geodynamic phases. Summarizing the geology of the Andes is challenging due to the vast amount of data collected across various geoscientific disciplines in recent years, making it difficult for one individual to cover all aspects. Thus, the subject matter has been limited, and readers are often referred to existing literature. Additionally, research varies significantly across different sections of the orogen, and the accuracy of geological maps can fluctuate widely, with large-scale mapping efforts only recently beginning in many